Perhaps no aspect of India's history excites more passion and violent disagreement than the evaluation of Islam's role in the sub-continent. On the one hand, the most extreme advocates of the 2-nation theory see the arrival of Islam as overwhelmingly positive - defending every gory invader or brutal conqueror that reached Indian soil - there are others who see the arrival of Islam as an even more destructive event for the people of the sub-continent than colonial rule. (See the article on the 2-nation theory for a comparison of India's Islamic period with colonial rule) .
And while it may be impossible to be completely objective and accurate in evaluating Islam's impact in the sub-continent - it is undoubtedly true that advocates of the former view have engaged in enormous histroical deception. And even well intentioned historians can have their biases. Their assessment of Islam's role in India could depend in large part on their personal priorities and value system. It could also be shaped by the nature and scope of the sources the historian consulted in order to develop his or her point of view. To some extent, the study of the Islamic period in Indian history has suffered because often, historians with an Islamist bias have attempted to obscure the truth while many other more objective historians have not always studied all aspects of Indian history in adequate depth. As a result, even while wishing to be objective, they have reinforced theories that are at best only partially accurate. The student of Indian history is then left to grapple with highly contradictory views of Indian history.
For Indians, this problem has been compounded by the impact of colonial rule, and its attempt to foster divisions and heighten tensions between India's different religious communities. A successful fight against colonial rule required the widest possible unity of the Indian people. This often meant that historical disputes between Hindu and Muslim scholars had to be muted. The fear of inciting communal riots or tensions and religious separatism weighed heavily on many historians. Partition caused such fears to linger on into the post-independence period as well. Because Muslims were a minority in India, there was a reluctance on the part of secular historians to critique the role of Islam in any way that could be perceived as 'negative'. Unfortunately this also led to an intellectual vacuum and historical confusion that has now been exploited by less scrupulous historians and even sheer myth-makers.
In order to restore the scholarship of this important period of India's history to a higher and more authentic plane, it is important that India's historians take up this challenging task with even greater devotion to truth and objectivity. At the same time, it is important that students of Indian history learn to separate the crimes of Islamic invaders and conquerors from their treatment of ordinary Indian Muslims. It is also important that we not judge the record of medieval rulers by today's standards of fairness and justice
On the other hand, it is equally dangerous to project something that seemed positive in one social era as something that is beyond criticism or reproach in a later era. What may have been tolerable or progressive in a certain period may become a hindrance to progress in a later period. It is therefore essential to understand that different eras may accept or tolerate or promote different social philosophies - but demands for social progress can and should lead us to expand or modify our ethical codes and therefore change our evaluation of religion, social mores and political ideology.
In evaluating the impact of Islam on the sub-continent, one must also note that the sub-continent was never immune from invasions from the North West. Like other settled agricultural societies - India has been periodically attacked by less civilized barbarian tribes all through its long history. In that sense, the Islamic invasions were not exceptional or unique. What does make the Islamic invasions different is that unlike their predecessors who assimilated into the prevalent social system - Islamic conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually superceded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics. They also introduced new cultural mores that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. While these were a source of friction and conflict, it should also be noted that there were also Islamic rulers who in much of their secular practice absorbed or accommodated local traditions.
We should also note that there were many different kinds of Islamic invaders. There were those who came primarily to pillage and loot, and left quickly after their plunder. Such invaders undoubtedly had a very debilitating effect. Any society that is subject to repeated external attack can lose its vigour and confidence. It can also suffer economic ruin because its accumulated savings can be forcibly expropriated and spent elsewhere. However, India was not alone in suffering such raids. Iraq and Egypt - which had already come under the sway of Islamic rule also experienced such violent attacks. In general, the treasuries of the Indian rulers (who had access to a large agricultural tax base) were comparatively rich, and frequently drew covetous interlopers and envious conquerors from the less fertile parts of Central Asia and the Middle East. The very geographic advantage that had helped to enrich India's civilization became its bane as it repeatedly attracted ambitious conquerors and marauders.
But not all invaders left after looting. Some fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were borne of Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Batuta (the 14th C. Tunisian traveler who left extensive records of his travels in India) one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. His memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, from Persia and Turkey were often favored with important posts at the royal courts suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India - II), however points to Muhammad bin Tughlaq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is possible that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.
There is also evidence of collaboration between Islamic and Hindu rulers such as between Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40) ruler of Jaunpur with Kirti Singh of Tirhut (although there is alos evidence to suggest that often such collaborations were coerced). The sultans of Jaunpur were frequently helped by the Hindu chiefs against their Muslim opponents, particularly the Lodis. Similarly, during the reign of Akbar, there was a functional alliance between the Rajput rulers and the Mughals - the alliance extending until the reign of Aurangzeb when the alliance began to weaken and gradually fall apart. (Also see the article on the 2-nation theory)
Hence, it would be incorrect to paint the Islamic rulers with a broad brush. While some were decidedly oppressive towards the local population, vandalized temples and sculpture, and remained generally detached from the vernacular cultures, others like Ahmed Shah of Ahmedabad or Adil Shah of Bijapur maintained a relatively close connection with indigenous traditions. While most Islamic rulers simply expropriated older Hindu or Jain monuments, and adapted them for their own purpose, a certain amount of fresh building activity also took place. Sher Shah Suri in his short reign played a particularly decisive role in creating several new urban centres. Although the practice of expropriation of Hindu temples and palace complexes did not come to an end with Lodhi or Mughal rule, new urban structures (such as inns along major highways) were alos built.
While some rulers stayed aloof from their subjects, and were strongly biased towards cultural practices imported from Turkey, Central Asia, Persia or Iraq - others preferred to study Sanskrit, encourage indigenous arts and employ Hindus in their administration without much discrimination. Ahmed Shah incorporated Hindu and Jain architectural motifs into his buildings without inhibition, Mughal rulers like Akbar and Jehangir tried to be eclectic in their tastes, and others like the Deccan rulers encouraged unique local-flavored styles. Some of the more enlightened Islamic rulers (particularly those who were born and raised in India and were recent converts from Hinduism or Jainism) understood (or came to understand) Indian geographic and climatic conditions, and like their Hindu counterparts in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh or Tamil Nadu (and elsewhere), invested in vital water-works like canals, dams, artificial lakes, step-wells and underground water-channels.
In their secular practice, the best of the Islamic rulers contributed to the expansion of urban life and culture, just as other rulers had done in preceding eras. (The contributions of Islamic rulers in promoting trade and manufacturing are noted in much greater detail in the article on the History of Crafts and Trade.) However, a major source of conflict emerged between Islamic and Hindu rulers, and this was on issues of taxation, and in the framing and enforcement of legal codes. And this is where matters came to a head. If one were to extrapolate from the accounts of Ibn Batuta, it would appear that Hindu rulers were more inclined to tax trade activities at a higher rate, giving concessions to agriculturists, whereas Islamic rulers tended to follow a more liberal policy vis-a-vis traders (many of whom were foreigners from the Islamic nations), but exercised a more exacting tax policy towards agriculturists. It would thus appear that the arrival of Islam shifted power in favor of the mercantile class at the expense of cultivators.
And while it may be impossible to be completely objective and accurate in evaluating Islam's impact in the sub-continent - it is undoubtedly true that advocates of the former view have engaged in enormous histroical deception. And even well intentioned historians can have their biases. Their assessment of Islam's role in India could depend in large part on their personal priorities and value system. It could also be shaped by the nature and scope of the sources the historian consulted in order to develop his or her point of view. To some extent, the study of the Islamic period in Indian history has suffered because often, historians with an Islamist bias have attempted to obscure the truth while many other more objective historians have not always studied all aspects of Indian history in adequate depth. As a result, even while wishing to be objective, they have reinforced theories that are at best only partially accurate. The student of Indian history is then left to grapple with highly contradictory views of Indian history.
For Indians, this problem has been compounded by the impact of colonial rule, and its attempt to foster divisions and heighten tensions between India's different religious communities. A successful fight against colonial rule required the widest possible unity of the Indian people. This often meant that historical disputes between Hindu and Muslim scholars had to be muted. The fear of inciting communal riots or tensions and religious separatism weighed heavily on many historians. Partition caused such fears to linger on into the post-independence period as well. Because Muslims were a minority in India, there was a reluctance on the part of secular historians to critique the role of Islam in any way that could be perceived as 'negative'. Unfortunately this also led to an intellectual vacuum and historical confusion that has now been exploited by less scrupulous historians and even sheer myth-makers.
In order to restore the scholarship of this important period of India's history to a higher and more authentic plane, it is important that India's historians take up this challenging task with even greater devotion to truth and objectivity. At the same time, it is important that students of Indian history learn to separate the crimes of Islamic invaders and conquerors from their treatment of ordinary Indian Muslims. It is also important that we not judge the record of medieval rulers by today's standards of fairness and justice
On the other hand, it is equally dangerous to project something that seemed positive in one social era as something that is beyond criticism or reproach in a later era. What may have been tolerable or progressive in a certain period may become a hindrance to progress in a later period. It is therefore essential to understand that different eras may accept or tolerate or promote different social philosophies - but demands for social progress can and should lead us to expand or modify our ethical codes and therefore change our evaluation of religion, social mores and political ideology.
In evaluating the impact of Islam on the sub-continent, one must also note that the sub-continent was never immune from invasions from the North West. Like other settled agricultural societies - India has been periodically attacked by less civilized barbarian tribes all through its long history. In that sense, the Islamic invasions were not exceptional or unique. What does make the Islamic invasions different is that unlike their predecessors who assimilated into the prevalent social system - Islamic conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually superceded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics. They also introduced new cultural mores that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. While these were a source of friction and conflict, it should also be noted that there were also Islamic rulers who in much of their secular practice absorbed or accommodated local traditions.
We should also note that there were many different kinds of Islamic invaders. There were those who came primarily to pillage and loot, and left quickly after their plunder. Such invaders undoubtedly had a very debilitating effect. Any society that is subject to repeated external attack can lose its vigour and confidence. It can also suffer economic ruin because its accumulated savings can be forcibly expropriated and spent elsewhere. However, India was not alone in suffering such raids. Iraq and Egypt - which had already come under the sway of Islamic rule also experienced such violent attacks. In general, the treasuries of the Indian rulers (who had access to a large agricultural tax base) were comparatively rich, and frequently drew covetous interlopers and envious conquerors from the less fertile parts of Central Asia and the Middle East. The very geographic advantage that had helped to enrich India's civilization became its bane as it repeatedly attracted ambitious conquerors and marauders.
But not all invaders left after looting. Some fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were borne of Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Batuta (the 14th C. Tunisian traveler who left extensive records of his travels in India) one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. His memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, from Persia and Turkey were often favored with important posts at the royal courts suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India - II), however points to Muhammad bin Tughlaq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is possible that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.
There is also evidence of collaboration between Islamic and Hindu rulers such as between Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40) ruler of Jaunpur with Kirti Singh of Tirhut (although there is alos evidence to suggest that often such collaborations were coerced). The sultans of Jaunpur were frequently helped by the Hindu chiefs against their Muslim opponents, particularly the Lodis. Similarly, during the reign of Akbar, there was a functional alliance between the Rajput rulers and the Mughals - the alliance extending until the reign of Aurangzeb when the alliance began to weaken and gradually fall apart. (Also see the article on the 2-nation theory)
Hence, it would be incorrect to paint the Islamic rulers with a broad brush. While some were decidedly oppressive towards the local population, vandalized temples and sculpture, and remained generally detached from the vernacular cultures, others like Ahmed Shah of Ahmedabad or Adil Shah of Bijapur maintained a relatively close connection with indigenous traditions. While most Islamic rulers simply expropriated older Hindu or Jain monuments, and adapted them for their own purpose, a certain amount of fresh building activity also took place. Sher Shah Suri in his short reign played a particularly decisive role in creating several new urban centres. Although the practice of expropriation of Hindu temples and palace complexes did not come to an end with Lodhi or Mughal rule, new urban structures (such as inns along major highways) were alos built.
While some rulers stayed aloof from their subjects, and were strongly biased towards cultural practices imported from Turkey, Central Asia, Persia or Iraq - others preferred to study Sanskrit, encourage indigenous arts and employ Hindus in their administration without much discrimination. Ahmed Shah incorporated Hindu and Jain architectural motifs into his buildings without inhibition, Mughal rulers like Akbar and Jehangir tried to be eclectic in their tastes, and others like the Deccan rulers encouraged unique local-flavored styles. Some of the more enlightened Islamic rulers (particularly those who were born and raised in India and were recent converts from Hinduism or Jainism) understood (or came to understand) Indian geographic and climatic conditions, and like their Hindu counterparts in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh or Tamil Nadu (and elsewhere), invested in vital water-works like canals, dams, artificial lakes, step-wells and underground water-channels.
In their secular practice, the best of the Islamic rulers contributed to the expansion of urban life and culture, just as other rulers had done in preceding eras. (The contributions of Islamic rulers in promoting trade and manufacturing are noted in much greater detail in the article on the History of Crafts and Trade.) However, a major source of conflict emerged between Islamic and Hindu rulers, and this was on issues of taxation, and in the framing and enforcement of legal codes. And this is where matters came to a head. If one were to extrapolate from the accounts of Ibn Batuta, it would appear that Hindu rulers were more inclined to tax trade activities at a higher rate, giving concessions to agriculturists, whereas Islamic rulers tended to follow a more liberal policy vis-a-vis traders (many of whom were foreigners from the Islamic nations), but exercised a more exacting tax policy towards agriculturists. It would thus appear that the arrival of Islam shifted power in favor of the mercantile class at the expense of cultivators.
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